Chinese Incense History: The Golden Middle Ages Part II (Song and Yuan dynasties)
From the refined studios of scholars to the ports of Quanzhou, incense shaped the rhythm, art, and trade of medieval China.
If Chinese incense began to flower in the early Middle Ages, it truly blossomed through the Song dynasty (960–1279) and continued into the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). These centuries saw incense become both a cultural language and a key economic force across East Asia.
Traditional Chinese incense has thousands of years of history. Here, we explore the period between the 10th and 14th centuries—roughly parallel to Europe’s High and Late Middle Ages. For earlier developments, see our article on early medieval incense use; and for later Ming and Qing innovations, stay tuned for the next chapter.
The Song Dynasty: A Cultural Pinnacle (960–1279)
The Song court, though less opulent than the Tang, marked the intellectual and artistic zenith of China. This was the age of gunpowder, the compass, and printing—inventions that reshaped civilization. Cities such as Kaifeng and Hangzhou were the world’s largest, teeming with scholars, merchants, and incense traders.
The painting Listening to the Ancient Zither (《听琴图》), attributed to Emperor Huizong and housed in the Palace Museum, Beijing, captures the Song ideal: refined music, calm minds, and a whisper of incense smoke. Where there was art, there was incense—it perfumed the scholar’s brush, poetry, and spirit.
Incense in Song Poetry and Scholarship
Incense was essential to the scholar’s life. Writers burned it while composing, reading, and meditating. Many infused musk or clove into their inksticks to add fragrance and resilience to the writing process.
Huang Tingjian (黄庭坚), one of the Four Great Song Masters, openly admitted to an “incense addiction.” His famous work Ying Incense Recipe (《婴香》), now preserved in the National Palace Museum Taipei, combines poetry, medicine, and ritual in one scroll.
Ying Incense Recipe by Huang Tingjian – National Palace Museum Taipei
His contemporary Su Shi (苏轼), or Su Dongpo, used incense as metaphor for love and memory. In Turning the Incense (《翻香令》), he describes rekindling fading ashes—an image of devotion and loss after his wife’s passing.
Fragrance as Identity: The Literati Ritual
Song intellectuals used incense as a form of signature. Han Xizai paired scents with flowers, Xu Xuan preferred moonlit burns, and Mei Xun famously carried fragrance in his robe sleeves to release at court. To gift incense was to gift one’s taste; Su Shi presented his father with his own blend and silverware set—a poetic gesture of respect.
Incense and Maritime Trade
By the Song, sea routes rivaled the Silk Road. Ports like Guangzhou, Yangzhou, Ningbo, and Quanzhou became centers of the incense trade. Entire fleets, known as xiang bo (香舶, “incense ships”), sailed with sandalwood, aloeswood, frankincense, and ambergris from Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia.
In 1974, archaeologists uncovered a Song ship in Quanzhou filled with incense cargo. Thousands of kilograms of resins survived the centuries—testament to how integral fragrance was to commerce and ritual.
Frankincense discovered aboard the Quanzhou ship (People.cn)
Custom offices (shibo si, 市舶司) regulated the incense trade and taxed imports—so vital that at one point, incense revenues formed up to 15% of imperial income. Even Marco Polo’s accounts mention Chinese merchants sailing to India to trade incense and precious woods.
Incense in Court and Common Life
The palace maintained dedicated xiangyao ku (香药库, “incense vaults”)—Emperor Zhenzong alone oversaw 28 of them. During a drought, Emperor Renzong famously offered eight kilograms of ambergris to the heavens in prayer for rain.
Meanwhile, in daily life, incense shops lined every street. The Qingming Scroll (《清明上河图》) by Zhang Zeduan depicts a bustling incense store—Liu Family’s High-Quality Aloeswood and Sandalwood—proving fragrance had entered the urban mainstream.
Women wore incense-infused clothing and cosmetics, carrying pouches or silver balls like these surviving examples in museums. In restaurants, “incense attendants” advised guests on blends much like sommeliers recommend wines.
Incense Tea and Early Matcha
Song tea culture produced xiang cha (香茶, “incense tea”), the ancestor of Japanese matcha. Ground tea bricks were whisked with aromatics like sandalwood, aloeswood, or jasmine—creating a sensory bridge between tea, medicine, and meditation.
Incense as Medicine
Medicinal incense was widely used, documented in texts such as Taiping Shenghui Fang and Shengji Zonglu. These formulas prescribed aromatic resins for healing respiratory, cardiac, and mood disorders—insights supported today by modern studies on aromatherapy and neural balance.
Seal Incense and Stick Incense
The Song period popularized seal incense (yin xiang 印香), where powder was pressed into intricate molds and burned as patterned trails. Scholars designed personalized seals—fragrant calligraphy on ash.
Stick incense (xian xiang 线香) also emerged. Initially thick and molded, later refined by extrusion, it became the world’s most familiar incense form—practical, portable, and symbolic of everyday grace.
Song Incense Burners: Subtle and Sublime
Song burners embodied minimalism—small ceramic forms with pale celadon glazes, devoid of ostentation. These reflected the Song aesthetic of quiet beauty and utility.
A celadon incense burner with lid, Song Dynasty – Taipei Palace Museum
Favorite from the MET Museum’s collection – its purple-celadon glaze and serene geometry embody the essence of Song restraint.
The Yuan Dynasty: Continuity through Change
The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) adopted much of Song culture. As scholar-officials withdrew from politics, they turned wholly to the arts. Incense remained central in their studios and the palace alike—bridging Mongol power with Chinese refinement, and preparing the ground for Ming revival.
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