Chinese Incense History: The Golden Middle Ages Part II (Song and Yuan dynasties)

While incense in China began to develop during the early medieval period, it truly flourished during the Song dynasty (960–1279) and continued to impact the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). These centuries saw incense transform into a cultural symbol and a vital economic commodity throughout East Asia.

The history of Chinese incense stretches back thousands of years. In this article, we explore incense use from the 10th to 14th centuries—aligning with Europe's High and Late Middle Ages. To learn about the early stages of incense, check out our article on early medieval incense use; for a deep dive into incense in the Ming and Qing dynasties, stay tuned for the next installment.

The Song Dynasty: A Cultural Pinnacle (960–1279)

Although the Song court was not as opulent as the Tang dynasty, it marked the intellectual and artistic peak of Chinese civilization. This was the era of gunpowder, the compass, and printing—revolutionary inventions that changed the world. Cities like Kaifeng and Hangzhou were the largest in the world, brimming with scholars, merchants, and incense traders.

The painting Listening to the Ancient Zither (《听琴图》), attributed to Emperor Huizong and housed in the Palace Museum, Beijing, embodies the Song dynasty ideal: refined music, calm minds, and a touch of incense smoke. Where there was art, there was incense—its fragrance infused the scholar’s brush, poetry, and spirit.

Incense in Song Poetry and Scholarship

Incense was integral to the scholar’s life. Writers burned incense while composing, reading, or meditating. Many incorporated musk or clove into their inksticks to enhance both fragrance and the writing experience.

Huang Tingjian (黄庭坚), one of the Four Great Song Masters, famously confessed to being “addicted to incense.” His renowned work Ying Incense Recipe (《婴香》), housed in the National Palace Museum Taipei, blends poetry, medicine, and ritual.

Ying Incense Recipe by Huang Tingjian – National Palace Museum Taipei

His contemporary Su Shi (苏轼), or Su Dongpo, used incense as a metaphor for love and memory. In his poem Turning the Incense (《翻香令》), he describes rekindling the ashes of fading love—symbolizing devotion and loss after his wife’s death.

Fragrance as Identity: The Literati Ritual

For Song intellectuals, incense was more than just a sensory experience; it was a form of identity. Han Xizai paired fragrances with flowers, Xu Xuan preferred moonlit incense burns, and Mei Xun famously carried fragrances in his robe sleeves to release at court. To gift incense was to share one’s taste; Su Shi presented his father with a personal incense blend and a silverware set—an artistic gesture of respect.

Incense and Maritime Trade

By the Song dynasty, sea routes rivaled the Silk Road in importance. Ports like Guangzhou, Yangzhou, Ningbo, and Quanzhou became major hubs for the incense trade. Entire fleets, known as xiang bo (香舶, “incense ships”), carried valuable incense materials like sandalwood, aloeswood, frankincense, and ambergris from Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia.

In 1974, archaeologists uncovered a Song ship in Quanzhou filled with incense cargo. Thousands of kilograms of resins survived centuries of exposure—a testament to the importance of fragrance in commerce and ritual.

Frankincense discovered aboard the Quanzhou ship (People.cn)

Customs offices (shibo si, 市舶司) regulated the incense trade, even taxing imports—so vital that incense revenues once accounted for up to 15% of imperial income. Even Marco Polo mentioned Chinese merchants sailing to India to trade incense and precious woods.

Incense in Court and Common Life

In the imperial palace, dedicated xiangyao ku (香药库, “incense vaults”) were maintained—Emperor Zhenzong alone oversaw 28 of them. During a drought, Emperor Renzong famously offered eight kilograms of ambergris to the heavens in prayer for rain.

In everyday life, incense shops lined every street. The Qingming Scroll (《清明上河图》) by Zhang Zeduan depicts a bustling incense store—Liu Family’s High-Quality Aloeswood and Sandalwood—demonstrating how fragrance became a staple of urban life.

Women wore incense-infused clothing and cosmetics, carrying small pouches or silver balls like these surviving examples seen in museums. In restaurants, “incense attendants” advised guests on incense blends, much like sommeliers recommend wines.

Incense Tea and Early Matcha

During the Song, tea culture gave birth to xiang cha (香茶, “incense tea”), a precursor to Japan’s matcha. Ground tea bricks were whisked with aromatics like sandalwood, aloeswood, or jasmine, creating a sensory bridge between tea, medicine, and meditation.

Incense as Medicine

Medicinal incense was widely used, detailed in texts such as Taiping Shenghui Fang and Shengji Zonglu. These formulas prescribed aromatic resins to treat respiratory, cardiac, and mood disorders—insights supported by modern studies on aromatherapy and neural balance.

Seal Incense and Stick Incense

The Song period popularized seal incense (yin xiang 印香), where aromatic powder was pressed into intricate molds and burned as fragrant patterns. Scholars designed personalized seals—fragrant calligraphy on ash.

Stick incense (xian xiang 线香) also emerged. Initially thick and molded, it was later refined through extrusion, eventually becoming the world’s most familiar incense form—practical, portable, and symbolic of everyday grace.

Song Incense Burners: Subtle and Sublime

Song incense burners epitomized minimalism—small ceramic forms with pale celadon glazes, designed without ostentation. These burners reflected the Song aesthetic of quiet beauty and utility.

A celadon incense burner with lid, Song Dynasty – Taipei Palace Museum

Favorite from the MET Museum’s collection – its purple-celadon glaze and serene geometry embody the essence of Song restraint.

The Yuan Dynasty: Continuity through Change

The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) adopted much of Song culture. As scholar-officials withdrew from politics, they focused on arts and culture. Incense remained central in both their studios and the palace—bridging Mongol power with Chinese refinement, setting the stage for the Ming revival.

Explore More Fragrance Journeys