How Incense Powered Culture and Commerce in Ming–Qing China

• Why incense flourished during China’s demographic and economic boom
• How Macau, Hong Kong, and foreign traders fueled the incense trade (ambergris, sandalwood, agarwood)
• What changed in stick-making techniques—and the lost art of “Dragon Hanging Incense”
• How XuanDe bronze burners & cloisonné censers became icons of taste
• The archetypal text Xiang Sheng (《香乘》) and incense in classic literature

The prevalence of incense at the end of the Middle Ages not only continued but increased through the subsequent two dynasties, the Ming 明朝 (1368–1644) and the Qing 清朝 (1636–1912). From the Ming through to the High Qing era (1683–1799), China enjoyed relative stability and prosperity: population rose from roughly 60–70 million at the beginning of Ming to ~450 million by the end of Qing, and China was the world’s largest economy for long stretches. Incense—as craft, industry, and daily ritual—thrived under these conditions.

As we’ve written before, traditional Chinese incense spans millennia. Here we focus on the 14th–20th centuries (roughly Europe’s Renaissance to Modern eras). For earlier periods, see: Song & Yuan， Neolithic to Han。

Incense and China’s International Trade in the Ming Dynasty; Macau and Access to Ambergris

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, sea trading became more tightly controlled than in prior eras. Even so, vast quantities of aromatics entered China via official channels—and smuggling.

From mid-Ming, Portugal emerged as a major partner, especially for incense. Based in occupied Malaya, Portuguese ships frequented Guangdong (Canton), supplying pepper, sandalwood, frankincense, clove, aloeswood (agarwood), nutmeg, storax, and more. Records note that in 1626 alone, sandalwood worth 60,000 silver coins arrived from Indonesia[1]. For scale, a typical house in central Beijing cost ~160 coins at the time[2]—a staggering contrast.

Portugal and the Netherlands dominated the ambergris trade in the 14th–18th centuries. Some speculate that permitting Portuguese settlement in Macau granted officials better access to ambergris. In 1554—just a year after settlement—local officials purchased 11 taels (~410 g) of ambergris at an astonishing 1,200 silver coins per catty (斤 ≈ 597 g). Those ~400 g could buy 6+ typical Beijing houses of the era.

Hong Kong Literally Means “Incense Port”

Besides Macau, incense shaped Hong Kong’s story. In Ming times, Hong Kong fell under Dongguan (东莞/東莞) in greater Canton. Its warm climate supported extensive aloeswood (agarwood; jinkō/oud) cultivation, a pillar of the regional economy.

Local agarwood—Guanxiang (莞香)—was renowned. Hong Kong island hosted many plantations and became a logistics hub for export. Present-day Tsim Sha Tsui was called “Incense Wharf” (香埠头/香埠頭), and Shek Pai Wan (Aberdeen) was literally “Incense Port” (香港). “Heung Gong” in Cantonese rendered into English as “Hong Kong.” By the Wanli era (万历/萬曆, 1530–1620), the toponym 香港 appeared on charts like Map of Sea Areas near Canton《广东沿海图》/《廣東沿海圖》[3].

Incense Types in the Ming: Stick Advancements & the Lost “Dragon Hanging Incense”

Methods evolved from Song foundations but grew more refined. Early-Ming sticks were often thick or molded; by late Ming, extrusion tools made sticks thin and uniform. Core-stick forms (签香/簽香, 棒香) appeared mid-Ming and spread—akin to many Indian agarbatti today.

Another curiosity emerged mid-Ming: 龙挂香 (“Dragon Hanging Incense”). Unlike modern temple spirals, these were sculpted into animal forms or characters and suspended to burn. The art is now lost, with only textual records remaining[4].

The Famous XuanDe Incense Burners and Cloisonné Censers

Perhaps the most celebrated Ming–Qing development lies in burners—especially the Ming-era XuanDe (宣德炉/宣德爐). Advances in bronze metallurgy produced pieces both strong and corrosion-resistant, matching the rise of stick use with smaller, lid-less forms.

During the XuanDe emperor’s reign (1426–1435), large quantities of high-grade copper (a royal gift from Siam/Thailand) were alloyed with precious metals into a lustrous bronze. Over 3,000 burners were cast, reportedly reserved for the palace and gifted to temples and elite officials.

Demand and prestige led to extensive copying—sometimes by the very artisans of the originals—so much so that “XuanDe” now often denotes the restrained bronze aesthetic of the era. A high-quality XuanDe-style piece collected by scholar Wang Shixiang fetched 15+ million RMB (~US$2M) at auction in 2010.

Cloisonné (珐琅/琺瑯) techniques arrived from Byzantium/Islamic spheres in the 13th–14th centuries. By XuanDe’s time, Chinese artisans excelled at the craft; by early-18th-century Qing, the Kangxi emperor maintained an imperial cloisonné workshop. Many blue-ground censers with intricate motifs survive in museums today.

The Archetypal Chinese Incense Book: Xiang Sheng (Record of Incense, 《香乘》/《香乗》)

Ming–Qing scholarship on incense was prolific. The touchstone is Xiang Sheng《香乘》, compiled by Zhou Jiazhou (周嘉胄, 1582–1661) in Yangzhou after 20+ years’ research—a comprehensive encyclopedia of ingredients, properties, uses, Song-era formulas, and historical anecdotes.

The text survives largely thanks to inclusion in the imperial compendium Siku Quanshu (四库全书/四庫全書). With later upheavals, scholars also rely on preserved copies in Japan—such as the Waseda University library exemplar.

Incense in Other Ming & Qing Literature

As in earlier dynasties, incense permeated elite life. Refinement in ingredients, recipes, vessels, and technique signaled status. The Ming scholar-activist Gao Panlong (高攀龙/高攀龍) left a vivid routine in Posthumous Work of Gaozi《高子遗书》/《高子遺書》—morning ablutions, incense, contemplation of the Yi Jing, walks, tea, meditation, reading.

Incense in The Dream of the Red Chamber 《红楼梦》/《紅樓夢》

The Grand View Garden (大观园/大觀園) scenes teem with aroma. Lantern Festival passages speak of great braziers, sachets, “御香,” and air thick with perfumed smoke—incense as atmosphere of wealth, ritual, and emotion.

From Empire’s End to Today’s Revival

With the fall of Qing in 1912, war and upheaval paused many traditions. For nearly a century, numerous arts lay dormant. In recent years, incense has quietly returned to modern Chinese life—now as much a mindfulness aid as a ritual heirloom.

We hope this chapter inspires your own gentle ritual—light a stick, breathe, and let attention return home.

Explore other chapters in the series:

• Chinese Incense History: From the Neolithic Period to pre-Middle Ages (Pre-Qin, Qin and Han Dynasties)
• Chinese Incense History: The Golden Middle Ages Part I (pre-Tang and Tang dynasties)
• Chinese Incense History: The Golden Middle Ages Part II (Song and Yuan dynasties)

Quick Timeline Recap (Ming–Qing Highlights)

• Trade: Tightened controls; Portuguese & Dutch supply sandalwood, frankincense, ambergris; Macau as gateway.
• Hong Kong: “Incense Port”—agarwood hub; place-names reflect the trade.
• Craft: Stick-making refined; core sticks spread; “Dragon Hanging Incense” recorded.
• Objects: XuanDe bronze burners; Qing cloisonné imperial workshops.
• Texts: Xiang Sheng codifies ingredients, formulas, and lore.
• Culture: Incense saturates literati life and classic fiction.

FAQ

Notes & References

1. [1] C R Boxer, Fidalgos in the Far East, 1550–1700
2. [2] Raff, Wachter & Yan, “Real Estate Prices in Beijing, 1644–1840,” Wharton PDF. Typical house value (1645–1669) was 111 silver taels; assuming each coin ≈ 0.7 tael ⇒ ~158.5 coins.
3. [3] Guo Fei, Comprehensive Record of Canton ~1595 郭棐《粤大记》
4. [4] 《本草纲目》：“线香……成条如线也。赤或盘成物象字体，用铁钢丝悬爇者，名龙挂香。”